Hazards and Emergency Procedures and the WGL
leader - what you need to understand!
As
a walking group leader you are accepting a duty of care
for others in your group. As part of this duty of care
you need to exercise good judgment in both the planning
and execution of your upland journeys.
If
you are successful and diligent in this regard then
the contents of this page will never be used by you!
However, as part of your duty, you need to be familiar
with the potential hazards and dangers faced by yourself
and your group out on the hill. you need to have strategies
for dealing with these hazards and tactics / equipment
and skills for responding when things have gone wrong!
At
assessment, you can expect your knowledge and skills
in all these areas to be examined by a combination of
processes, including navigation tasks, discussion, written
paper and scenario setting, so having a range of appropriate
responses and doing some thinking and practicing of scenarios
before hand is a good idea.
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Here's
what the walking group leader (WGL) prospectus has to say about
navigation...
Hazards
& Emergency Procedures
There
are a number of distinct types of hazard that might be encountered
when walking in the hills. These include steep ground, marshes
and streams, high winds and extreme weather conditions. These
are best considered separately, although avoiding or dealing
with them may involve many of the same principles.
A
hazard need not imply that there is immediate danger to the individual
or group, rather that there is a potential threat that needs
to be dealt with by the walking group leader. Depending upon
the terrain, the prevailing weather conditions and the experience
of the group,
the potential severity of the hazard will be on a progressive
scale. A WGL leader should be able to react to all these variables
in a manner that safeguards those in their charge. It is possible
to encounter an emergency in the outdoors and a WGL leader should
be thoroughly prepared for these situations.
Hazards
of Steep Ground and Cliff Edges
Candidates There
is a clear need for the walking group leader to be able to identify
and avoid steep ground and cliff edges. Steep ground in this
context is either broken vegetated slopes possibly with a proportion
of visible rock, well defined outcrops or very steep and unbroken
vegetated slopes. Some moorland areas have steep escarpments
that must be avoided when planning routes. It is an assumption
within the definition of moorland areas that these hazardous
features can be easily avoided by walking around them.
The
use of a rope is beyond the scope of the walking group leader
award. The walking group leader should not take groups into terrain
where the use of a rope might be required.
Assessors When
assessing this aspect of the syllabus the assessor should examine
the judgment and skills of the candidate in identifying and
avoiding this type of terrain. This must not be an unduly intimidating
situation. Candidates should be able to tackle the problems in
a relaxed frame of mind with reasonable amounts of time to complete
tasks. Management skills such as positioning of the group in
relation to the leader and the various forms of un roped assistance
are valuable to a potential leader and should be examined.
Environmental
and water hazards
Candidates Candidates
should have an awareness of the major environmental hazards and
know how to avoid or deal with them. These include flooding,
lightening, high winds and unstable ground surfaces. These hazards
can best be managed through careful planning and observation.
Candidates
may have encountered a limited range of water hazards such as
stream crossings and dealing with bogs and marshes. The potentially
serious nature of other water hazards such as rivers and fast
flowing streams can not be overemphasised. Water hazards can
seldom be separated from the prevailing weather conditions. Candidates
must show, by way of good route choice and leadership, that they
can avoid these hazards. Candidates are not expected to enter
rivers or fast flowing streams under any circumstances.
Assessors The
candidate's understanding of environmental hazards can be examined
by means of written questions, informal discussion and by practical
demonstrations, especially when relevant situations arise. While
it may be beneficial to enter hazardous areas intentionally to
test the judgment of candidates, attention should be given to
hazard avoidance through sound preparation and understanding.
Emergency
Procedures
Candidates Emergency
situations may develop from accidents or from errors of judgment.
Walking group leaders will experience extra pressure when something
goes wrong. Therefore candidates should be clear as to the most
suitable response for a given emergency on a journey.
Assessors Emergency
procedures can be assessed by a combination or written / oral
examination and practical work. Assessors should accept that
there might be more than one acceptable solution to a situation.
This area lends itself to discussion, particularly in groups,
when differences of opinion may arise and can be debated for
the benefit of all candidates.
Assessors
should be confident about the candidates' knowledge and ability
regarding accident procedure and their responses to emergency
situations.
Some
thoughts on hazards and risks within the walking group leader
context.
If
you examine any incident or accident in the hills and trace
back the set of interrelated factors that led to the situation.
There are some distinct phases involved:
In
other words an accident doesn't start when things go wrong!
THe path to disaster, starts way before you even get onto the
hill.
For
example,
some of the pre planning factors that influence whether the incident
ever occurs and if it does how serious it will be include:
Leader
experience
Group experience
Formal and informal training
Equipment selection
Trip planning
Fitness preparation
Emergency planning and equipment selection
Route choice
Risk assessments
Current level of relevant experience for leader and group
Weather considerations
Observations during the walk to this point
Etc.
There
is much that the walking group leader can and should do that
has a impact on the likely hood and consequence of an
incident
occurring.
For
example, the group that is benighted on the fell and has to undertake
an emergency bivouac. This occurred because they were slower
over the ground than expected. They were slower over the ground
because
the group were less fit and walked slower then anticipated and
because the navigation was harder than the leader could cope
with. They continued with the original plan because the leader
was so absorbed in the challenge of navigating, that they failed
to look after the group effectively and failed to recognise and
react to reality on the ground during the walk. The
group moved slower, because several of the team developed blisters
early in the day. The group developed blisters because the group
got wet feet. The group got wet feet because the leader led them
through a bog, rather than reading the ground and finding a better
route. The leader also failed to brief the group on blisters,
walking and foot care.
You
can see how a major problem develops from combinations of small
errors / misjudgments. It is a critical responsibility of
the walking group leader to be diligent in their duties. Of course,
you may go months or years without an incident occurring to you
and I hope this will be the case. However, absence of evidence
(no history of incidents) isn't evidence of absence (does not
prove that the hazard is not there!).
In
the reactive phase, you will 'react' to what has occurred on
the ground in front of you. This is where you draw on your training
and use all that emergency equipment you carry but never need!
Remember, that you don't just need to deal with the incident,
you also have to continue to look after the rest of your group
and keep your operating authority (employer) informed and up
to date on
what's occurring as well. A stressful and demanding set of circumstances,
particularly if you have skimped on the kit you have with you
and or you have a sense of responsibility for causing the incident
in the first place.
More
common, in my personal experience is that you happen across
someone else's bad day! This could be lost people, injured people
or poorly equipped people (or indeed anything). So you may need
to respond and deal with a situation that is totally unrelated
to you or your group.
Of
course following the conclusion of the incident, there is always
a reflective phase where the lessons can be learned and the due
process of law conducted if needed. What is important to remember
here, is that you will be judged against your decisions and actions
both in the pre planning phase and the reactive phase. Legally
speaking, your qualifications will mean very little! it is your
relevant and
recent experience
combined with the choices you made against what is considered
best practice that will count in the coroner's court!
Hazards
of Steep Ground and Cliff Edges
Of
all the potential hazards out there steep ground and outcrops
should be the easiest to predict, manage and avoid. A combination
of good planning and observation on the ground should lead
you clear of any potential hazard.
Of
course with all things judgemental, the two extremes are easy
to decide:
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Walking
on open rolling fell or moorland with no major steep ground
features. It is easy to keep within both the definition
and the spirit of walking group leader terrain.
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It
is just as straight forward to judge when we are operating
clear outside the remit of the walking group leader award.
Such is the case with this scrambling group on the east
face or Tryfan in North Wales.
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The
difficult judgment comes on the middle ground.
Here
Ger Tor on Dartmoor has a southern flank covered
in broken rock, angled slabs and grassy inclines.
Is it in scope for a walking group leader? given
that much of the territory around it is open plateaux
would it be good judgment to take a group down
the incline?
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As
can be seen from the 1:50,000 map segment below, the steepness
is predicable, but not the nature of the terrain, however,
the hazard is easily out flanked on the spur to the east
and south.
The
walking group leader needs to develop fine judgment and if
in doubt avoid the terrain. Steep wet grassy banks that an
experienced
hill walker can descend quite safely can prove treacherous
to a novice in less capable footwear, so always air on the
side
of
caution.
At
assessment, you can expect to be questioned and may be examined
via a paper planning exercise or even taken into some marginal
terrain to see how you react.
Environmental
and water hazards
There
was a tragedy just this winter on Dartmoor (2007) when a
teenager was lost in a river crossing incident. It serves
to reinforce that non mountainous, moorland terrain continues
to claim lives and without doubt, water hazards remain a
serious and if anything increasing threat to walking groups.
In
this regard, your pre planning phase once again provides
the safety net. Good consideration of the recent rainfall
pattern combined with projected weather forecasts for the
time of the planned excursion will help to identify the potential
for high water conditions. Time of year will have a major
impact too. Moorland areas are often extensive water catchment
zones and characterised by bog, marsh and peat. At the end
of winter,
or after periods of extensive rain, these areas become saturated,
holding as much water as they can. At such times, even moderate
rainfall, just 'flashes' straight off the upland areas and
steams and rivers can rise and fall with considerable speed.
If
you identify the threat by good pre planning, you will need
to modify your response to control the hazard. There is nothing
practically that you can do, to control the water in the
water courses, so the only thing you can control is where
you go and what you do when you get there. If ever there
was a case for re planning your route to avoid boggy areas
and stream crossings. Or to accompany a novice group rather
than remotely supervise them then this would be the time.
Briefings to staff teams, or unsupervised groups would need
to include the hazard and the response, so if you do get
caught out by the side of a hazardous stream or river, what
are
your options?
We
talk about the three 'D's of river / stream crossing in anything
other than the most benign conditions:
1.
Detour - walk around it. This takes real self discipline -
if the rivers are high it is usually raining, which means that
the team may well be 'switched off' or very keen to get the
walk finished. THe planned route, or the escape if they have
gone the wrong way will lie ahead and across the water course,
so the desire to risk it will be high! People often underestimate
the power, cold and force of moving water and over estimate
their ability to cross it or survive if they fall in.
2. Delay - stay where you are if detouring is not a viable
option. In the context of the walking group leader award,
this should never be the case, you can always walk around
if you remain in scope of the scheme. However, in extremis,
staying put and waiting for conditions to improve is an option
and it's a better option that attempting a crossing in high
flow conditions.
3. Don't - obvious, but the sound advice. Never attempt a
river crossing in high flow conditions, the consequences
of getting it wrong, combined with the remoteness of
your situation (help won't get to you in time) means
that the risk is too high!
Bogs
and marshes provide a different set of hazards. They are simplicity
itself to spot, either from studying the map, or by looking
at the vegetation - one good reason to build your environmental
knowledge.
The
most important and most common consequence of wandering into
bog is the affect upon morale and performance.
Groups that are 'dragged' across areas of boggy terrain and
extensive marsh
find the going really tough and it will switch them off very
quickly. They will also end up with wet feet which can lead
to all kinds
of other
issues and risks, so as a general rule detour around!
However,
if you do end up stuck in a bog or marshy area what can happen?
Typically people panic and try and walk / run / scrabble out.
A great deal of marsh land actually has a reasonably firm 'matting'
of vegetation on the surface and people only really become stuck
once they have broken through it into the bog underneath. Indeed
on Dartmoor, there are areas where you can feel and see the ground
wobble away in front of you - it's like trying to walk across
a waterbed!
Struggling
using your legs will only take you deeper in, so the first thing
to do is stop and relax (oh how easy to say!). You need to get
some weight off, so remove your rucksack and place it on the
ground in front of you. You can now lean your body over it to
reduce
the pressure on your legs and spread your weight across a larger
ground profile. By doing this, you may now be in a position to
work each leg out one at a time. If successful, stay on the
ground and either crawl or roll away from the area. Avoid placing
your weight back on your feet as you try to escape as this will
just put you back in the bog!
If
others are going to help, the principle still applies, spread
you weight by getting down on the ground. Spread it further by
crawling on top of things that will distribute your weight even
further - rucksacks, waterproofs, tentage, poles etc.
At
the end of the day it's much easier and safer, not to mention
more pleasant to walk around, which is why at assessment a fair
degree
of emphasis
is
placed on your ability to observe the ground, identify hazards
like marshy areas and lead your group around them. Candidates
who just navigate from point A to point B in a direct line, no
matter what the ground is like in between are going to have a
long debrief
at the end of the assessment and it won't be a happy one!
Other
environmentally triggered hazards include the risks from lightening
- See Steve Long's book for an excellent discussion on this topic
and the associated risks of heat and cold.
Hyperthermia
- getting too hot! The body needs to remain within about 2 degrees
of it's optimum temperature of 37'C or 98.6'F. In the context
of the walking group leader award, hyperthermia is a risk when
the body heats up due to exposure to excessive heat - hot sunny
day
with
no
shade or wind on the fells combined with excessive heat production
through exercise (walking!).
We
react by removing clothing to cool ourselves
down (in fact this just increases exposure to the elements
and also the risk of sunburn!), we increase sweating to evaporate
heat away from the surface of our bodies, we also increase
breathing - remember a dog cools down by panting - heavy breathing
is an
effective heat reduction strategy. Both of these mechanisms
rely on full hydration to cope and need air that is not saturated
with water vapour.
In
reality on the hill, on hot dry days we need to be extra vigilant
of the group, ensuring that everyone has appropriate clothing
- thin tops with log sleeves, sun hats and plenty of sun cream.
We need to check that everyone has good access to water and that
we all drink on a regular basis - as a leader you need to manage
this as groups, particularly younger walkers tend not to drink
enough. A can of coke for lunch time is not effective, so check
don't just ask.
If
conditions persist, in other words, the day gets hotter, that
air gets stiller and we keep walking hard. THe ability of the
body to cope diminishes and overheating has the potential to
become a major hazard for us. Prevention is the key, but if you
get
it wrong, the victim will eventually stop sweating (no more fluid
left) and the skin becomes dry but very red, they will quickly
deteriorate - they hare heading for heat stroke, because now
the body can not regulate it's own temperature and they are beginning
to cook.
You
must act fast to reduce the heating process - STOP, this will
minimise heat production from within the body. Get them in the
shade, if there is no shade, create shade using your group shelter
/ walking poles etc. Once they are stabilised in the shade, you
can enhance cooling by getting them wet - if you are near a steam
or bog, sit them in it! If not wet their clothing for them and
fan them to increase evaporation. It is this process of evaporation
that will reduce their heat. If you can get fluids into them
do, but by this stage they usually don't feel like taking fluids
on board.
It's
a medical emergency and they will need to be evacuated - not
walked out. So you need to get help on the way (see emergency
procedures below). If you are tempted to continue walking, you
run the risk of sending them into a coma so STOP and get help.
At the end of the day about 30% of heat stoke cases are fatal,
so react early to avoid a mess!
Don't
forget, that if one of your group is in trouble, the rest of
your group won't be far behind, so while you deal with this emergency,
you need to deal with the rest of your group too! Much better
to avoid it by good planning and adapting your route early in
the day.
The
opposite is also a major threat - getting too cold or good old
Hypothermia. Again, in the context of the walking group leader
award, we are talking about the risk of exhaustion hypothermia.
THe same environmental facts that help above to cool down the
hyperthermic casualty, will now be working against us. Heat is
being lost to the atmosphere through
heavy
breathing (because we are walking hard) combined with surface
cooling from the body by evaporation. A combination of wind
and rain or rolling around in a bog creating wet clothing and
skin which is then rapidly cooled by the wind.
We
compensate for this by burning more energy to keep warm - walking
faster (but don't forget the breathing issue!), shivering etc.
As we use up our energy reserves we get to a point where we can
no longer maintain our temperature against the onslaught of
the elements and we begin to succumb to exhaustion hypothermia.
As
part of the body's defence mechanism, the capillaries and blood
supply to the extremities are reduced to keep the blood in the
core.
Legs and arms get closed down and the blood left in them thickens,
cools and becomes poisoned by the process of metabolism (builds
up toxins from the cell respiration process).
The
body is trying to keep the warm blood in the core for your vital
organs.
You
now have a victim on the hill, unable to help themselves, with
very little resilience to recover and well on their way towards
a coma and death.
Critical
in avoiding this situation are a number of factors:
1.
Good diet proceeding the day out and during the trip - if the
group are not eating good food (carbohydrate) in the proceeding
24 / 48hrs, then they wont have the energy reserves available
to keep warm on the hill and will succumb quicker to exhaustion.
Likewise,
they need the right food with them and they need to both eat
and drink regularly during the day - harder to make happen
in driving rain!
2.
You pre plan including weather and risk assessment should identify
the potential hazard given the situation and you need to have
some controls in place to limit it's impact. Controls include,
length
and
destination
of planned walk, checking group diet, checking personal equipment,
what group kit you carry, etc.
3.Good
monitoring on the ground of group and weather conditions. On
challenging days like these, you really earn your money as
your leadership and judgment skills will need to be fully
deployed to keep everyone safe.
Again
avoidance is the best policy, however if you do get caught out,
consider your tactics carefully. The fist thing to do is STOP.
If you continue to walk a hypothermic victim, you continue to
burn up what little remaining energy they have and you will increase
the rate at which they slip towards coma, so STOP.
You
need to protect the victim and the rest of your group from the
elements. What are the mechanisms that are going to continue
cooling them down?
1.
Wind - not just wind chill, but the wind speeding up the evaporation
of water from wet clothing and skin. - you need to get them
out of the wind.
2.
Wetness - you need to prevent them getting any wetter as their
clothing is dried by evaporation - so get them out of the
rain.
3.
The ground - sitting on the ground will quickly conduct body
heat away - you need to insulate them from any cold surface.
4.
Breathing - continued breathing will continue to cool them
down - you need to stop them breathing (just kidding!) but
we do need to think about how we can reduce the cooling affect
of breathing.
If
you take care of these four things you will stabilise your casualty.
On the hill, you priority is to stabilise them and then get them
evacuated. We are not in the business of trying to re warm a
hypothermic casualty because of the associated risks. Chief amongst
these
risks are the cooled blood in the extremities combined with
all the contracted blood vessels shutting off the circulation.
If
you re warm the casualty on the hill, by applying heat (for
example putting someone in a sleeping bag with them), the blood
vessels
relax to begin the circulation of blood to the heat source
(which is against the skill on the outside of their body). With
the
blood vessels now relaxed, there is a sudden drop in blood
pressure combined with the cold blood from the arms and legs
moving
towards the weakened core and the warm life sustaining blood
left in
the
core moving
towards the extremities - a recipe for disaster!
Our
job is to stabilise (prevent the situation getting any worse)
and then evacuate. This is your process:
1.
STOP, further walking will do no good. Get to a sheltered spot
and stop. Use your training to get the rest of the group safe
- put them in a group shelter etc.
2.
The victim needs to go inside a vapour barrier (something that
will prevent water vapour passing through it). If they are in
posh, expensive breathable waterproofs, they are at more risk
- you need
to stop water vapour escaping. Put them inside a big orange plastic
bag (ideal) and then get them into a group shelter. Leave them
in all their wet clothing / waterproofs etc, just get them
into the
bag and into the group shelter.
3. Insulate them from the floor
4.
Now you have bought yourself some time. As things stabilise,
you can add extra clothing, remove very wet outer layers, put
them in a sleeping bag etc. But only once things have stabilised.
If they are too far down the road, don't disturb them just leave
them in the wet stuff inside the vapour barrier, inside the group
shelter with some company and place any extra clothing sleeping
bags etc over the outside of the vapour barrier.
5.
Do what you can to create a 'fuggy' atmosphere inside the
shelter. Lots of people breathing (all the group inside the
same shelter), a stove on the floor, boiling off water vapour
etc. Essentially, what you are trying to do is get the atmosphere
inside the group shelter as 'wet' as you can. By saturating
the air, you stop the process of evaporation which means that
your victim, while still in wet clothing, is no longer losing
energy and heat through evaporation. Just as important, when
they breathe, they are no longer losing heat through evaporation
either. This is why the vapour barrier (orange survival bag)
is so important.
By
doing these actions you will stabilise the situation and
buy yourself some time. Remember, that if you have one victim,
the rest of your group won't be far behind them, so take precautions
for them too.
It's
going to be another evacuation job, so if they have advanced
hypothermia, they are going to need to be either carried or flow
off the moor, so don't be tempted to try and walk them out.
There
is an excellent discussion on the range of hazards and responses
in Steve Longs book which I highly recommend you get hold
of and read
Emergency
Procedures
There
is going to be a range of responses depending upon the nature
of the incident, the location, the group etc. so we can only
talk in terms of generalisation here.
In
any situation where you are operating as a walking group
leader, you are going to have a duty of care on your shoulders.
Depending upon the age of your group, this duty of care can
differ, but essentially it means that you owe them your best
endeavours to look after them, and remember you will be judged
against what is considered current best practice if it all
ends up in front of a judge.
The
first point is that you can not exercise your duty of care
responsibility if you yourself are incapacitated. So you
have a responsibility to keep yourself safe, so you can perform
your function as a group leader. An aero plane is no good
without a pilot!
The
second point, is your duty of care extends to all of your
group, not just the person(s) directly involved in the incident.
So you priority is to keep the remainder of your group safe
and prevent the situation getting any worse for them - this
includes physical and emotional risks.
Only
once you have secured the first two requirements can you
think about any victim / casualty of the incident or accident
if
there are any.
So
your order of priority are:
In
my experience this takes a fair bit of self discipline to achieve
as everyone naturally gets totally focused on the incident and
any victims.
In
the hills, your priorities should be:
1.
Avoid the hazard and prevent the emergency happening.
2. Recognise that things have gone wrong early and react to
that reality.
3. STOP and assess the situation and your options.
4. Take preventative action to stabilise the situation and
prevent it deteriorating any further for self and group.
5.
Stabilise the situation for anyone involved / injured.
6. Take reasonable action to promote a good outcome without endangering self
or group.
7. Seek help / back up early.
8. Inform employer - continue to look after group.
Certainly,
if you have good relevant experience, you have made reasonable
judgments on your route given the weather, group and ability.
You have the correct range of equipment with you. your risk assessment
and recent training have given you the skills and awareness to
deal with any incident, then you are well set to make reasonable
decisions
and take appropriate action on the occasions when it all goes
a little off track.
Classics
scenarios to watch out for on assessment that you might want
to have thought through:
Hypothermia
/ hyperthermia incidents to one of your group.
Losing
contact with a group member on a leg and then realising you
are one or two short on your next head count!
Minor
injury / broken or twisted ankle.
Someone
who is struggling to keep up the pace (please don't just
stick them at the front!).
Getting
lost.
Coming
across an incident to someone else on the hill
Swollen
river blocking route.
Campsite
of bunkhouse injury - typically a cooking incident.
While
this list is not exhaustive or exclusive it does give you an
idea of the range of common problems / incidents that confront
the walking group leader. Quite clearly if you only response
is to stop, put the group in the group shelter and go for help,
you might need to have done some more reading and thinking!
